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Managment Practice
2013-02-04
Managment practice 49 slides. Tiems, kas ieško išsamios informacijos apie vadovavimą ir jo principus.
Anglų kalba  Pagalbinė medžiaga   (49 psl., 1,26 MB)
My dream house
2010-05-12
To begin with, I must say that for the meantime I live in a five storied building with other buildings around it. My flat is on the fourth floor. The flat has all modern conveniences, but is not very large. As I know many people usually dream about the castle on the bank of the sea with many huge rooms and bathrooms. But I don’t. My dream house is quite different.
Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (1 psl., 6,53 kB)
Kolokacijos - tai žodžių junginiai, dažnai pasitaikantys sakytinėje ir rašytinėje kalboje, sukuriantys naują semantinę reikšmę ir skirstomi pagal savo funkciją ir sandarą. Kaip ir kiti kalbos vienetai, verčiant yra transformuojamos naudojant pagrindinius vertimo trasformacijų tipus – perkėlimą, pakeitimą, įterpimą ir praleidmą. Šio darbo tikslas – išrinkti kolokacijas, sudarytas iš veiksmažodžio ir daiktavardžio analizuojant Europos Sąjungos dokumentus ekologijos tema, pastebėti ir analizuoti kolokacijų vertimo transformacijas. Darbo uždaviniai – apžvelgti įvairių autorių teorinius požiūrius, susijusius su darbo objektu, pateikti asmeninę sampratą, apžvelgti transformacijų dėsningumus ir susisteminti bei apibendrinti tyrimo duomenis.
Kita  Kursiniai darbai   (17 psl., 52,89 kB)
Purpose: to analyze the changes of women’s roles and education, to review critical attitude to the book “The Mill on the Floss”. Mary Ann (Marian) Evans (1819 –1880), better known by her pen name George Eliot, was an English novelist. She was one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. Her novels, largely set in provincial England, are well known for their realism and psychological insight. She used a male pen name, she said, to ensure that her works were taken seriously. An additional factor may have been a desire to shield her private life from public scrutiny and to prevent scandals attending her relationship with the married George Henry Lewes. She was educated at home and in several schools, and developed a strong evangelical piety.
Anglų kalba  Analizės   (20 psl., 513,96 kB)
Thieves - vagys
2010-02-09
Thieves – this is a very big problem in our society. Every day we can meet the performance street pickpocket. Our city is more than a professional pickpocket thief. Basing of the working people should especially keep your items and keep them to yourself.
Anglų kalba  Pagalbinė medžiaga   (1 psl., 3,37 kB)
Procesorius
2010-01-19
Pagrindinis IBM tipo PK privalumas, turbut ir lemes šios klases kompiuteriu isivyravima, yra tas, kad jis yra komplektuojamas iš atskiru daliu, t.y. pagal pasirinkima galima keisti bet koki PK konfiguracijos elementa ar prideti nauja. Taigi PK ir apibudina kiekvieno kompiuterio elemento parametrai. Todel, atsivertus kainorašti ar PK dokumentacija, pamatomi kiekvienos detales duomenys. Nežinanciam tai tikra makalyne - prireikus kompiuterio, tenka konsultuotis su pardavejais, kurie retai kada objektyviai ivertina situacija ir padeda pasirinkti poreikius ir galimybes atitinkancia kaina. Pagrindine informacine eilute, kurioje sutelpa visa kompiuterio informacija, gali atrodyti maždaug taip (pvz. Nr.1): Pentium 166 MHz Intel MMX 512k; 16MB RAM; 3,5'' FDD; HDD WDAC 3,1 Gb; SVGA 1 MB; 14''/0,28 MPR II, LR; pele; klaviatura. Konfiguracija gali buti ir kitokia, taciau i šia eilute sudetos svarbiausios dalys ir išemus nors viena iš ju kompiuteris nebeveiks arba nebus pilnavertis. Todel, kad PK veiktu, reikia pagrindines plokštes (motherboard), centrinio procesoriaus (CPU), operatyviosios atminties (RAM), vaizdo plokštes (video card), korpuso (case), diskasukio (FDD), kietojo disko (HDD) klaviaturos (keyboard) ir monitoriaus. Šiuo metu neatsiejama butinybe darosi pele (moise) bei CD-ROM disku skaitymo irenginys. Trumpai apibudinsime kiekviena iš ju. Pagrindine plokšte. Tai kompiuterio stuburas. Pats pavadinimas pasako, kad tai PK pagrindas, sujungiantis kitus elementus. I pagrindine plokšte galima ikišti centrini procesoriu, operatyviaja atminti, vaizdo plokšte, prijungti kietaji diska, diskasuki, klaviatura bei daug kitokiu irenginiu. Pagrindine plokšte pirmiausia apibudina procesoriu klase, kuriems ji skirta: 286, 386 (SX, DX), 486 (SX, DX), Pentium, Pentium Pro (Dual) ar Pentium II. Dažniausiai i nurodytos klases plokšte galima kišti bet kokio darbinio dažnio atitinkancios klases procesorius, taciau buna išimciu, todel prieš dedant ar renkantis procesoriu svarbu paskaityti pagrindines plokštes aprašyma, kuriame paprastai buna išvardint leidžiami procesoriai. Rašydamas apie pagrindines kompiuteriu dalis, nepaminejau tokio komponento, kaip kontroleris, ir tai padariau samoningai todel, kad šiuo metu kontroleriai dažniausiai buna imontuoti pagrindines plokštes viduje. Senesnese plokštese - 286, 386 bei 486 VL-BUS - kontroleris yra kaip atskira plokšte ir jo funkcija yra ryšiu su išoriniais irenginiais (printeriu, kietuoju disku, diskasukiu bei kt.) palaikymas. Jau gal metai kaip pasirode pagrindines plokštes su imontuotomis viduje garso kortomis (Sound Blaster), taciau jos didelio pasisekimo neturi. Tai rodo, kad atskiru komponentu integravimas i viena plokšte neperspektyvus. Verta pamineti pagrindiniu plokšciu charakteristika yra spartinancioji atmintis (cache memory). Pvz. Nr.1 tokios atminties yra 512 k, t.y. 512 kilobaitu (1 baitas = 8 bitai, 1 bitas = 1 dvejetaines abeceles simbolis). Ji skirta procesoriaus ryšiui su operatyviaja atmintimi spartinti. Dažniausiai spartinanciosios atminties pagrindineje plokšteje buna 256 k. Didesni jos kiekiai reikalingi didesniems operatyviosios atminties kiekiams (>=64MB) spartinti. Dar yra nemažai pagrindiniu plokšciu charakteristiku, priklausanciu nuo firmos gamintojos bei kitu veiksniu, bet apie juos, jei bus idomu, parašysiu kitame straipsnyje, kuri bus galima paskirti vien pagrindinems plokštems. Centrinis procesorius. Tai kompiuterio smegenys. Centrinis procesorius (CP) atlieka visas skaiciavimo ir valdymo funkcijas, kurios vienu ar kitu budu yra nurodomos PK. Kaip jau paaiškejo iš pagrindines plokštes aprašymo, dabar yra šešios personaliniu kompiuteriu CP klases: 286, 386 (SX, DX), 486 (SX, DX), Pentium, Pentium Pro ir Pentium II. Taigi procesoriu apibudina jo klase ir kitas labai svarbus bruožas - darbinis dažnis. Svarbiausia CP greicio charakteristika yra klase, taciau ir darbinio dažnio žymus indelis. Štai didelio darbinio dažnio žemesnes klases CP gali apdoroti operacijas tokiu paciu greiciu kaip ir aukštesnes klases mažo darbinio dažnio - 5x86 (486 klases) 133 MHz = K5 (Pentium klases) 75 MHz. Taciau yra ribinis gaminamu CP darbiniu dažniu diapazonas, pvz., 486 klases darbinis diapazonas 33 160 MHz, Pentium - 60 233 MHz. Trys pagrindiniai CP gamintojai AMD (Advanced Microcomputer Devices), Intel ir Cyrix gamina skirtingus CP, kurie turi specifines charakteristikas bei pavadinimus, pvz., AMD - K5, Intel - Pentium, Cyrix - 6x86. Dažnai kompiuteriu specialistai nesutaria, kurio gamintojo procesoriai geriausi greicio ir suderinamumo prasme, taciau vis dažniau dabar yra vertinami seniausios ir didžiausios firmos Intel procesoriai. Procesoriu (kaip ir smegenis) reikia vesinti, todel ant jo yra dedamas vesintuvas (cooler). Intel firma pradejo leisti procesorius kartu su vesintuvais (Box), todel nereikia atskirai jo isigyti. CP su raidemis MMX turi savyje išplesta rinkini komandu, kurios pagreitina darba su grafiniais vaizdais ir garsu (multimedia). Greiciausi Pentium Pro ir Pentium II procesoriai turi dar ir vidine spartinanciaja atminti, kuri buna nurodyta šalia procesoriaus (256K arba 512K). Operatyvioji atmintis. Ši atmintis panaudojama kompiuterio veikimo metu, o išjungus kompiuteri ji išsitrina. Operatyvioji atmintis yra skirstoma pagal nuskaitymo greiti bei jungciu (''kojeliu'') skaiciu. Pagal jungciu kieki yra 30, 72 (SIMM) ir 172 jungciu (DIMM) atmintis. 30 jungciu operatyvioji atmintis yra naudojama senesnes klases kompiuteriuose (<486). 72 jungciu operatyvioji atmintis yra vyraujanti dabartiniuose kompiuteriuose. EDO raidemis pažymeta atmintis yra greitesne. Po truputeli isivyrauja DIMM atmintis, kuri Pentium ar aukštesnes klases kompiuteriuose jau turi po viena ar kelias jungtis. Vaizdo plokšte (korta). Ju ivairove yra tikrai didele. Ka svarbu žinoti renkantis vaizdo plokšte? Pirmiausia reiktu žinoti, koks bus monitorius. Svarbiausia monitoriaus ir vaizdo plokštes jungtis yra vaizdo atmintis, kuri buna nurodoma prie kortos gamintojo pavadinimo. Vaizdo atmintyje yra saugomas vaizdas, kuris patenka i monitoriu. Pvz., 1 MB vaizdo atminties gali išsaugoti 640x480 tašku vaizda su ne didesniu kaip 16 777 216 atspalviu skaiciumi, 800x600 tašku vaizda su ne didesniu kaip 65 536 atspalviu skaiciumi arba 1350x768 - su 256 atspalviais. Jei jusu monitorius turi didele skiriamaja geba (pvz., 1600x1200) ir jus norite matyti daug atspalviu - aišku, kad 1 MB vaizdo atminties jums nepakaks. Taciau svarbu žinoti, kad vaizdo atmintis nepagreitina vaizdo perdavimo, o tik nusako jo kokybe. Norint dirbti su galingais grafiniais paketais, galima isigyti vaizdo plokštes su erdviniu figuru piešimo greitintuvais (3D accelerator). Plokštuminiu vaizdu greitintuvai buna sumontuoti beveik visose naujose vaizdo kortose. Greitintuvai patys nupiešia nurodoma figura, nereikalaudami CP papildomo skaiciavimo. Gaminamos vaizdo kortos ir su išejimais i TV. Korpusas. Pagrindines yra 4 korpusu klases: stalinis (plokšcia deže, dažniausiai statoma ant stalo ir dar vadinama desktopu), mažasis bokštelis (dažniausias kospusas), vidutinis bokštelis ir didysis bokštelis. Buna ivairiu dizainu korpusu, taciau visi jie turi maitinimo bloka, jungikli ir perkrovos (reset) mygtuka. Diskasukis. Sudaro galimybe informacija perduoti diskeliuose. Populiariausi šiuo metu yra 3.5'' diskasukiai. Šiuose diskasukiuose naudojamu diskeliu talpa svyruoja nuo 750 kB iki 1.44MB. 5.25'' diskeliai vis mažiau vartojami del mažesnes talpos, nepatogaus dydžio ir nepatikimumo. Kietasis diskas. Šis irenginys - ilgalaike atmintis. Duomenu saugojimo principas paremtas magnetiniu irašu. Dar visai neseniai kietuju disku talpa matavome MB (1024 baitai = 1 KB; 1024 KB = 1 MB; 1024 MB = 1 GB), o dabar jau ne stebuklas ir 9 GB kietasis diskas. Idomumo delei galiu pasakyti, kad ikrauti Windows 95 OSR2 užima apie 135 MB, o 640 MB talpos CD-ROM enciklopediniame diske Encarta 96 yra 26 000 straipsniu, 9,5 valandos muzikos, 8000 paveiksliuku ir nuotrauku, 800 žemelapiu ir daugiau negu 100 ivairiu vaizdo ir animaciniu siužeteliu. Kietuju disku talpa labai greitai auga, nes dideja programiniu paketu apimtis ir pinga gamybos technologijos. Taciau, analizuojant kainorašti, galima nesunkiai nustatyti palankiausia kainu atžvilgiu disko talpa, kuri šiu metu yra 3,1 GB. Pagal prijungima ir duomenu perdavimo magistrale kietieji diskai gali buti skirstomi i IDE ir SCSI. Dažniausiai i PK yra dedami IDE diskai, nes jiems nereikia papildomo kontrolerio ir duomenu perdavimo greitis gali buti iki 33 MB/s. SCSI diskams yra reikalingas specialus kontroleris, jie yra 5 ar daugiau kartu brangesni už IDE, taciau duomenu nuskaitymo greitis išauga iki 40 MB/s. Kompiuterio veikimo greitis labai priklauso nuo disfaktoriaus, nes duomenu nuskaitymo greitis yra vienas pagrindiniu PK greiti ribojanciu veiksniu. Lietuvoje labiausiai paplite 2 firmu kietieji diskai - Western Digital (WDAC) ir Seagate. Klaviatura. Gerai žinomas PK valdymo ir duomenu ivedimo irenginys. Manau, kad klaviaturos pasirinkimas - vartotojo skonio ir patogumo reikalas. Standartines yra 101/102 klavišu klaviaturos, sudarytos iš pagrindines ir papildomos klaviaturos. Pagrindineje klaviaturoje yra abeceles, valdantieji (kursoriaus), specialieji (ENTER, Esc ir kt.) ir funkciniai klavišai (F1, F2 ir t.t.). Pagalbineje klaviaturoje yra dubliuojami skaitmeniniai ir kai kurie specialieji klavišai patogesniam vartotojo darbui. Išleidus Windows 95 operacine sistema, klaviatura buvo papildyta dar keliais pagalbiniais klavišais, skirtais Start meniu bei pagalbinio meniu atidarymui. Monitorius. Kaip ir televizoriu, monitoriu apibudina istrižaine. Placiausios paklausos monitoriai yra 14'' ir 15'' istrižaines, o apskritai istrižaine vyrauja nuo 9'' iki 29''. Buna spalvoti ir nespalvoti monitoriai, taciau nespalvotu monitoriu pasirinkimas kur kas mažesnis. Monitoriaus veikimo principas yra toks pat, kaip ir televizoriaus. Monitoriuje kadru atsinaujinimo greitis yra priklausomas nuo vertikaliosios ir horizontaliosios skleistines. Maksimaliosios skleistines yra nurodomos monitoriaus dokumentacijoje. Dažniausiai prie monitoriaus yra nurodoma didžiausia horizontalioji skleistine, pvz., 70 kHz. Kuo didesne skleistine, tuo mažesnis mirgejimas. Vaizdo ryškuma veikia ir vadinamasis taško dydis. Tai mažiausias vienspalvis elementas. Taško dydis nurodomas milimetrais ir buna iki 0,25 mm. Kuo mažesnis taškas, tuo geresnis ryškumas. Monitorius yra ir pats kenksmingiausias PK elementas. Siekdama apriboti magnetiniu lauku emisija, Švedijos nacionaline matavimu ir bandymu komisija (SWEDAC) Švedijoje pardavinejamiems monitoriams ivede elektromagnetinio spinduliavimo nekenksmingumo standartus, vadinamus MPR II. Monitoriai, turintys ši sertifikata, paprastai ir pažymimi tomis raidemis Gerokai patikimesni yra TCO'92 ir TCO'95 sertifikatai. TCO'92 sertifikatas apima elektromagnetines emisijos, energijos suvartojimo bei saugumo normas. TCO'95 sertifikatas daugiau yra skirtas viso kompiuterio standartams kontroliuoti. Taciau juo žymimi ir monitoriai. TCO'95 reglamentuoja ne tik visas minetas TCO'92 charakteristikas, bet ir ekologiškos gamybos, sunkiuju metalu kiekio irenginyje bei atgyvenusio irenginio nekenksmingumo laikymo salygas. Saugumo standartu sertifikatu yra tikrai nemažai (Energy Star, ISO 9421 ir kt.). Didžiausius reikalavimus kelia TCO'95 sertifikatas. Raides LR (Low Radiaton) reiškia sumažinta radiacijos emisija ir buna ant daugelio nauju monitoriu. Pele. Pagal klavišu skaiciu yra 2 arba 3 klavišu peles. Treciasis (vidurinis) klavišas yra gana retai naudojamas. Peles klavišu funkcijos yra ivairios, jos priklauso nuo naudojamos programines irangos. Pagal prijungimo prie kompiuterio buda yra nuosekliojo jungimo (serial) ir PS/2 jungimo peles. Nuosekliojo jungimo peles jungiamos prie nuosekliojo perdavimo jungties (COM porto) ir naudoja vienos jungties išteklius. PS/2 prijungimo peles jungiamos tiesiai i pagrindine plokšte ir nenaudoja nuosekliosios perdavimo jungties ištekliu. Pele - greiciausiai susidevintis PK komponentas, todel norint pailginti peles veikimo laika, patartina isigyti peles padekla (mousepad) bei periodiškai pele valyti. PK visuomet yra numatytos vidines konfiguracijos pakeitimo galimybes - papildomo standartines jungtys (slots) RAM praplesti, ilgalaikes atminties irenginiams prijungti (C-ROM, kietajam diskui, diskasukiui), ivairioms papildomoms kortoms istatyti (tinklo kortoms, garso kortoms, skaneriams, modemams ir kt.). Bendravimui su išoriniais irenginiais yra nuosekliojo ir lygiagreciojo informacijos perdavimo jungtys. Vartotojas, isigijes bazini modeli, gali pritaikyti ji savo konkretiems uždaviniams spresti. Taip PK tampa universaliu irenginiu - ji galima placiai pritaikyti ivariausiose gyvenimo srityse. PC centrinis blokas.Centrinis blokas valdo visus PK cirkuliuojančios informacijos srautus. Jį sudaro pagrindinis procesorius, pastovioji atmintis (ROM), operatyvioji atmintis (RAM), spartinančioji atmintis (Cache), ryšio tarp sisteminės magistralės ir atskirų bloko dalių bei išorinių įrenginių interfeisai, taip pat disketinių, diskinių kaupiklių bei displėjaus valdikliai. PP yra PK “smegenys”. Jis, kaip ir ESM pagrindinis procesorius, atlieka aritmetines ir logines operacijas, valdo PK. Nuo PP priklauso ESM galimybės. MP apibudinamas “žodžio” ilgiu, matuojamu bitais, ir darbo dažniu, išreiškiamu megahercais. Pastovioje atmintyje (ROM) yra gamintojo įrašyta PK valdymo programa BIOS, taip pat gali būti ir kitos operatoriaus darbą palengvinančios priemonės, pavyzdžiui, grafinis vartotojo interfeisas ir labiausiai paplitę programiniai paketai. Į operatyviają atmintį (RAM) įrašomos darbo metu vartotojo naudojamos programos, PK cirkuliuojanti informacija ir darbo rezultatai. Spartinančioji atmintis (Cache) naudojama pagreitinti informacijos cirkuliacijai tarp PP ir RAM, taip pat tarp diskinio kaupiklio ir RAM. Informacija tarp atskirų PK dalių yra perduodama per sisteminę magistralę. Ja cirkuliuoja trijų rūšių informacija: duomenys; adresai; PK valdantys signalai. PK dalys su magistale sujungiamos interfeisais, turinčiais prievadus (Ports) - kanalus informacijai priimti ir perduoti. Kiekvienas prievadas turi savo adresą, kuriuo į jį kreipiamasi. Per interfeisus PK palaiko ryšį su išoriniais įrenginiais, pvz., spausdintuvu, modemu, tinklu. IBM tipo PK naudojami lygiagretusis “Centronics” ir nuoseklieji interfeisai RS232 bei RS422. Nuo 1997 m.pradėtas naudoti ypač greitas nuoseklusis interfeisas IEEE 1394 ir universalusis nuoseklusis interfeisas USB (Universal Serial Bus), prie kurio galima prijungti net 127 išorinius įrenginius. Valdikliai valdo jiems priklausnčias PK dalis.Su išore PK bendrauja per imformacijos įvedimo ir išvedimo įrenginius. Operatorius informaciją į kompiuterį įveda klaviatūra, iš disketės, disko,CD-ROM arba skeneriu skaitydamas dokumentus. PK operatorius valdo klaviatūra, sensoriniu ekranu, pelyte arba valdymo rutuliu. PK informacija operatoriui išveda į ekraną arba atspausdina popieriuje. PK su kitais kompiuteriais bendrauja per tinklo adapterį, modamą ar faksmodemą.
Informatika  Referatai   (15,56 kB)
Beside the couch was a wooden chair, and on the angle of the back hung a very seedy and disreputable hard-felt bat, much the worse for wear and cracked in several places. A lens and a forceps lying upon the seat of the chair suggested that the hat had been suspended in this manner for the purpose of examination. "You are engaged," said I; "perhaps I interrupt you." "Not at all. I am glad to have a friend with whom I can discuss my results. The matter is a perfectly trivial one"- he jerked his thumb in the direction of the old hat- "but there are points in connection with it which are not entirely devoid of interest and even of instruction." I seated myself in his armchair and warmed my hands before his crackling fire, for a sharp frost had set in, and the windows were thick with the ice crystals. "I suppose," I remarked, "that, homely as it looks, this thing has some deadly story linked on to it-that it is the clue which will guide you in the solution of some mystery and the punishment of some crime." "No, no. No crime," said Sherlock Holmes, laughing. "Only one of those whimsical little incidents which will happen when you have four million human beings all jostling each other within the space of a few square miles. Amid the action and reaction of so dense a swarm of humanity, every possible combination of events may be expected to take place, and many a little problem will be presented which may be striking and bizarre without being criminal. We have already had experience of such." "So much so," I remarked, "that of the last six cases which I have added to my notes, three have been entirely free of any legal crime." "Precisely. You allude to my attempt to recover the Irene Adler papers, to the singular case of Miss Mary Sutherland, and to the adventure of the man with the twisted lip. Well, I have no doubt that this small matter will fall into the same innocent category. You know Peterson, the commissionaire?"
"Try it yourself, Holmes!" he has retorted, and I am compelled to admit that, having taken my pen in my hand, I do begin to realize that the matter must be presented in such a way as may interest the reader. The following case can hardly fail to do so, as it is among the strangest happenings in my collection, though it chanced that Watson had no note of it in his collection. Speaking of my old friend and biographer, I would take this opportunity to remark that if I burden myself with a companion in my various little inquiries it is not done out of sentiment or caprice, but it is that Watson has some remarkable characteristics of his own to which in his modesty he has given small attention amid his exaggerated estimates of my own performances. A confederate who foresees your conclusions and course of action is always dangerous, but one to whom each development comes as a perpetual surprise, and to whom the future is always a closed book, is indeed an ideal helpmate. I find from my notebook that it was in January, 1903, just after the conclusion of the Boer War, that I had my visit from Mr. James M. Dodd, a big, fresh, sunburned, upstanding Briton. The good Watson had at that time deserted me for a wife, the only selfish action which I can recall in our association. I was alone. It is my habit to sit with my back to the window and to place my visitors in the opposite chair, where the light falls full upon them. Mr. James M. Dodd seemed somewhat at a loss how to begin the interview. I did not attempt to help him, for his silence gave me more time for observation. I have found it wise to impress clients with a sense of power, and so I gave him some of my conclusions.
So unworldly was he- or so capricious- that he frequently refused his help to the powerful and wealthy where the problem made no appeal to his sympathies, while he would devote weeks of most intense application to the affairs of some humble client whose case presented those strange and dramatic qualities which appealed to his imagination and challenged his ingenuity. In this memorable year '95, a curious and incongruous succession of cases had engaged his attention, ranging from his famous investigation of the sudden death of Cardinal Tosca- an inquiry which was carried out by him at the express desire of His Holiness the Pope- down to his arrest of Wilson, the notorious canary-trainer, which removed a plague-spot from the East End of London. Close on the heels of these two famous cases came the tragedy of Woodman's Lee, and the very obscure circumstances which surrounded the death of Captain Peter Carey. No record of the doings of Mr. Sherlock Holmes would be complete which did not include some account of this very unusual affair. During the first week of July, my friend had been absent so often and so long from our lodgings that I knew he had something on hand. The fact that several rough-looking men called during that time and inquired for Captain Basil made me understand that Holmes was working somewhere under one of the numerous disguises and names with which he concealed his own formidable identity. He had at least five small refuges in different parts of London, in which he was able to change his personality. He said nothing of his business to me, and it was not my habit to force a confidence. The first positive sign which he gave me of the direction which his investigation was taking was an extraordinary one. He had gone out before breakfast, and I had sat down to mine when he strode into the room, his hat upon his head and a huge barbed-headed spear tucked like an umbrella under his arm. "Good gracious, Holmes!" I cried. "You don't mean to say that you have been walking about London with that thing?" "I drove to the butcher's and back." "The butcher's?" "And I return with an excellent appetite. There can be no question, my dear Watson, of the value of exercise before breakfast. But I am prepared to bet that you will not guess the form that my exercise has taken." "I will not attempt it." He chuckled as he poured out the coffee. "If you could have looked into Allardyce's back shop, you would have seen a dead pig swung from a hook in the ceiling, and a gentleman in his shirt sleeves furiously stabbing at it with this weapon. I was that energetic person, and I have satisfied myself that by no exertion of my strength can I transfix the pig with a single blow. Perhaps you would care to try?" "Not for worlds. But why were you doing this?" "Because it seemed to me to have an indirect bearing upon the mystery of Woodman's Lee. Ah, Hopkins, I got your wire last night, and I have been expecting you. Come and join us." Our visitor was an exceedingly alert man, thirty years of age, dressed in a quiet tweed suit, but retaining the erect bearing of one who was accustomed to official uniform. I recognized him at once as Stanley Hopkins, a young police inspector, for whose future Holmes had high hopes, while he in turn professed the admiration and respect of a pupil for the scientific methods of the famous amateur. Hopkins's brow was clouded, and he sat down with an air of deep dejection.
When you get a phone call and other party says ‘’hello’’, often you recognize the voice. Visual impressions, tastes, and smells are also coded in LM. If encoding is proper, in the case we need that information most probably we will be able to use it. 2. Storage. Some information is almost certainly lost from storage, particularly when there is a disruption of the processes that consolidate new memories. The biological locus of consolidation includes the hippocampus and amygdala, brain structures located below the cerebral cortex. Direct evidence of storage loss comes from people who receive electroconvulsive therapy to alleviate severe depresion. In such cases, the patient loses some memory for events that occurred in the months prior to shock, but not for earlier events. These memory losses are unlikely to be due to retrieval failures, because if the shock disrupted retrieval then all memories should be affected,not just the recent ones. 3. Retrieval. Many cases of forgetting from LM result from a loss of access to the information rather than from a loss of the information itself. That is, poor memory often reflects a retrieval failure rather than a storage failure. Trying to retrieve an item from LM is like trying to find a book in a large library. Failure to find the book doesn’t necessarily mean it is not there; you may be looking in the wrong place, or it may simply be misfiled and therefore inaccessible. There are a lot of evidence for retrieval failures. For example, you cannot recall a specific name or date during the exam, and you remember it just after the exam. Another example is ‘’tip-of-the-tongue’’experience in which a particular word lies tantalizingly outside our ability to recall it. We may feel quite tormented until a search of memory finally retrieves the correct word. The better the retrieval cues, the better our memory. Retrieval failures are less likely to happen when the items are organized during encoding and when the context at retrieval is similar to that at encoding. Retrieval processes can also be disrupted by emotional factors. Among the factors that can impair retrieval, the most important is interference. The essence of it: if we associate different items with the same cue, when we retrieve one of the items, the other items may become active and intefere with our recovery of the target. For example, if your friend Dan moves and you finally learn his new phone number, you will find it difficult to retrieve the old number. They interfere.
Anglų kalba  Konspektai   (5,37 kB)
Short-term memory
2009-12-22
SM is a intermediary (tarpininkas) storage between SeM and LM. One of its functions is in some way to process information and transmit it for further processing and storage. For this first of all is used encoding. Acoustic encoding is very common in SM and for a long time psychologists thought that was the only method of encoding. Evidence of its importance is documented by that show, for example, the letters T and C are more likely to be confused in SM than C and O, even when they are presented visually.Such results suggest that subjects are recoding the visual symbols to acoustic representations, thus explaining why the similar-sounding C and T are more easily confuced than the different-sounding C and O. There is ample evidence of visual and especially semantic encoding in SM as well. One of the most important aspects of SM is its limited capacity. It is 7 ± 2 elements for a wide variety of materials. There is a tremenduous amount of variation of what can be put into each of those seven bits. For example, we can hold seven numbers in our SM, but also7 words, 7 pictures, or sometimes even 7 sentences. In fact, the bits may be made considerably larger through the processes of chunking, by which we combine pieces of information together to allow them to take up less space in working memory. Another important process that occurs in SM is rehearsal, the temporary activation or recycling or information through memory. Rehearsal may be maintenance (holds information in SM long enough for it to be acted upon in some way) or elaborative (nuodugnus) rehearsal (helps transfer information to LM). Elaborative rehearsal relates information to other concepts already in LM and and develops new asociations between these concepts. The explanations offered for forgetting from SM generally cluster around two general phenomena. On the one hand forgetting is said to occur due to decay of the memory trace over time. The other class of explanations uses the consept of interference. Material is forgotten because other material that is similar is some way interferes by replacing or distorting it. Interference may be retroactive, which means it occurs after original leaning. And proactive, when interfering material comes first and hinder the learning of something else later. We use SM when we are thinking about something at the moment, solving problems (in this case information is retrieved from LM to SM). SM plays a role in understanding language. Findings suggest that we have a special memory system for processing language. A patient who has a defective memory span but normal language understanding has an impaired SM but an intact language memory. The special memory for language seems limited to relatively simple sentences. Once sentences become complex SM is brought in for help. When it come sto higher-level language processes like following a conversation or reading a text, SM appears to play a crucial role. When reading for understanding, often we must consciously relate new sentences to some prior material in the text.
Rape a women
2009-12-22
This is just one out of millions stories of rape. Several books can be written describing the stories of rape and many more volumes about the feelings of the raped women. Every day newspapers are full of reports of rape. People are scared. We know the definition of rape, but very few know what a victim feels. The act of not being able to choose what you want to do with your very own body is a violation in itself. No one understands that feeling until it happens. It is like knowing that you are going to get into a car accident, seeing the other vehicle approaching, not being able to stop it, but it lasting much, much longer. We are taught that we can choose how to live, but in case of raping we can not do anyhing at all, just wait until the end: end of the act or end of life… “I know that I will never, ever be the same person again. In fact, after it happened, I asked both my daughter and my sister if I looked different. Because I have changed so much, it must be on my face”, -says a raped 49-year woman. There are many explanations of a crime, its reasons and the effects on the victim. The view towards the causes of a rape changed over centuries. But almost all theories, no matter how old are they and their authors have one common trait: they blame the criminal and emphasize that he has some psychical disorders. Actually, there is a question: who is a victim: a raped woman or a rapist. They both are victims. The impact of rape on the victims emtional health appears to be huge. Several studies have found that during the first six months after rape, women show high levels of depression, anxiety, dismay and many other indicators of emotional distress. Some women manage to cope with it, fight and repair their lives. But the rapist cannot. He is not normal. A normal man cannot do such horrible things with so sad circumstances just for such a short pleasure. S. Brownmiller, a feminist, claims that the main motive of rape is a man’s asspiration to control and predominate over woman. Psychologists support this idea and claim that a rapist had problems in communicating in early childhood and he can not have close relationship with people. He is very lonely and repulsed and that is why he wants revenge. This theory also explains why he chooses women: physically women are weaker than men and there is much more chance to suceed. Statistical data show that the majority of the rapists feel that they are of little value. That is why they want to show their strenght and choose not very self-confident, weak and young women ( the most common age is 16-25 years). I ask a victim of a rape: “Was he normal?”. She is shocked by such a stupid question: “Normal? That bastard is sick. He was not a human. He was worse than an animal”. The biological theory explains that rapists are born with the savage instincts of wild animals. A bent for aggression and other crimes is inherited and lots of evidence is found. Christiansen’s research shows that if one of the monozygotic twins is a criminal, it is predictible that the other one will be a criminal as well. One more scientifically prooved explanation is related with internal inhibitions and controls. Only very few rapists are irresponsible for their actions. But the majority of criminals do not have such internal inhibitions and values as normal people do. Psychologists assert that internal controls are not develoveloped because of deficient or deviant values of a person. It is obvious that a man with strong and right values does not even think of such a humiliation of an innocent woman and of ruining her life. Only the one who thinks that it is quite normal to take by force from a woman what in normal conditions she can give to a man, can rape and after that feel almost normally or just feel nothing. And this leads to the only conclusion- he is not like the majority, he is not normal. Psychoanalytic theory, which also says that rapists are not normal people, was developed by Zigmund Freud. He says that the Superego (or the conscience) of rapists is not strong enough to contervale the wild inborn instincts of the Id. S.Freud claims that the sexual instinct is the most powerful in people’s decisions, but the Superego manages to control it. But when the Superego is weak, man can listen to his wild instinct to satisfy the sexual wish to have sex with any woman right here and right now. This disorder is very dangerous both to that individual and for society. Freud treats such men as not normal, but curable. But rape is not just a sexual intercause, but a physical injury as well. About seventy percent of rape is combined with severe injuries. Thanks God that just a little part is followed by death. There are such sadistic rapists who keep their victims for several days, no matter wheather she has children, hwo are waiting for their mother to return home. One married woman was taken from her own home and beaten and raped for seven days. Were they normal? It is up to You to decide. A normal man is ashamed to beat a woman at all. And here four “normal” men beat and rape a married woman for several days and do not care that her baby is waiting for his sweetest mummy. What do those men get for such actions? Ten orgasms and an opportunity to train their muscles? Was it worth the trouble? They think so, because they are deviants. Some men are such devils that they rape their own children and wives- the most precious people in their lives. The worst word in the world would be too kind for them. And for rape they are inprisoned only for eight to fifteen years. But the question is why they aren’t sentenced by capital punishment. They come out of prison and rape again. Another kind of rape is so-called “date rapes”. Such rapists are deviant in few aspects: they do not understand the meaning of a very simple word “No” ; and they feel satisfaction in having sex with a woman who may be screaming, crying, trying to escape… The main difference from the simple rapists is that they rarely beat their victim. But this is not a big comfort to the victim. A rapist can be anyone: a father, a grandfather, an uncle, a neighbour, a son… It would be good if physical appearance of the rapists would differ from the appearance of normal men. But it does not. Only psychics differ greatly: the men who can rape women have very serious problems in communicating with people, feel that they are of little value, do not have internal inhibitions and controls. The rapists are not like other men- they are not normal.
Popular music
2009-12-22
. I’m not saying all pop fans are closed minded to the point where they listen to the music genre that is currently trendy in hopes of it helping them position themselves socially. I’m also not denying the fact, people like that are out there. In most cases, I think people listen to pop because for some reason they’re not involved in another music scene, so it’s all they know exists. Record labels systematically chose who they want to sign, and then promote them to the public. Therefore, they have an enormous influence on what music America and many other countries listen to. This is bad news because corporate promoters don’t just go out looking for talent to sign to their label regardless of what kind of music it is attached to. Companies use statistics to determine what they think will sell, and sign whoever fits the right criteria. They don’t bother looking for artists who aren’t playing what’s hot; they want bands playing the sound they know sells. Labels also want bands with catchy songs, and I don’t know about you but I think catchy giggles are for advertisements. Real musicians have to be careful where they put their signature, because any one who takes them self seriously wouldn’t stand for a company who censers their art. Also you may have noticed TV is now just as much a source of music as radio, so you better be an attractive conformist if you want to be promoted as an artist in the business of pop music. MTV, without doubt, plays a major role in how generic popular music has become. Obviously the birth of music videos gave big business a chance to sell music to the other four senses. The real opportunity for MTV to cash in on the music industry wasn’t just picking up their crumbs. Just luring in those people whose ears are uninterested in music with flashy colors and shiny things is no longer their motive. Quickly MTV figured out eye candy doesn’t sell nearly as well as the fantasy life the right image can supply. There is nothing wrong with having an image, everyone portrays an image whether they like it or not. In this case the problem is, MTV uses image to sell a product where image should be considered irrelevant. The effect of doing this is closing the viewers’ minds; it causes people to listen to music only on the expressional level.
Back to the point, I must say that it is very difficult to show only four as there are many places in interest in Lithuania. From what I know, there are many national parksin Lithuania. As a matter of fact, I could take my guest to few of them. Firstly, I would show to my guest The Trakai National Park. This park was designed in 1992 to embrace the historical city of Trakai, the forests, lakes and villages. The most significant historic monument is the Island Castle, on lake Galvė, which was built in the 14th century. The gothic castle is an impressive example of Lithuanian fortress architecture. From the tower of the castle you can see the shores of the lake, surrounding it like a green wreath. The castle now houses a valuable ethnological museum. In summer, chamber music concerts are held every Sunday in the representation hall. I am definitely sure, that foreigners would be impressed by this charms of nature. Secondly, I would be able to show one more national park. Žemaitija National Park was founded in 1991. The main aims of the park are to preserve the lake Plateliai system and the nature, to make better conditions for endangered species of flora and fauna, to develop tourism. It's also important to keep in mind that in the park my dear guest can have a good rest and spend holidays or weekend in the fresh air, in picturesque places, play sports and games, visit museums of traditional woodearved sculptures. As far as Vilnius is concerned, it is the capital of Lithuania. Vilnius is the largest city in the Republic and a cultural center. It goes with the teritory that in case you are going to show Lithuania to foreigner, you must show him the capital of Lithuania. Sitting at the top of Gediminas hill are the ruins of the Upper Fortress. The 14th-16th century gothic castle is both an architectural and historical monument. The bottom floors now house a small museum where you can learn about the history of Vilnius and see displays of archaeological findings. A narrow spiral staircase leads you to the top of the tower and a breathtaking view of Vilnius. Be sure to take in the view from all directions - opposite of the city, illuminating like a vision, is Hill of Three Crosses. Your eye will naturally be drawn to the classical elegance of Vilnius Cathedral, which sits in the middle of Cathedral Square. And the last place, which I would love to show to my guest is Neringa. The fact is well known that Neringa is home to the longest street in the country. You have a chance to choose to stay in traditional family house or in luxurious hotels. It's no matter who is your guest, there he can take relaxing and fun-filled holiday. To sum it up, I was given a chance to tell only about four beautiful places in Lithuania, but I can't go along with that it is all what our guest can see in Lithuania.
Anglų kalba  Rašiniai   (5,05 kB)
Life and death
2009-12-22
Though less is known about death. All we know is that the body stops functioning. And no one knows what comes after that, what happens with person’s mind and spirit. Or maybe nothing happens, human existence just ends at the moment of death. So far it is everyone’s business to believe in life after death or not. But there is one question that can be discussed about death: is it meaningful or not? One can say that the one who believes in life after death will give the meaning to it and on the contrary – the one who does not – will not give the meaning to it. But there are people who do not believe in life after death. They even do not know if they believe in something at all and death is something mysterious, something important in human’s life even for them. Why death is so important in human’s life? Is it important? Before answering these questions I checked in the Internet hoping to find something about death. I looked for information in Academic Search Elite and Academic Search Premier databases and found over 20.000 pages related to this theme. Of course, not all of them were only about death itself, some of them where about death of some famous person, but the numbers speak. People talk about it, and if they talk about it – they care about it, it is important for them. However, why others think that it is just “an awful, stinking, absurd horror, and there is no way of giving it meaning”? There may be a lot of reasons and I would like to mention some of them. Let us look at the world history and especially the World War I, World War II and other tragedies. Dead people were buried all together without coffins, without priests (if a man was religious), without any attention. Of course, there were such circumstances – economic situation was bad, no time for normal funeral (have to fight), lots of unknown dead people. The death lost it’s mysteriousness, sacral meaning. Therefore some people think of death if it was only the end of bodies functioning. Though no man can judge them because no-one knows if there is something after death. Everyone knows for sure that the body begins to fall to pieces, begins to putrefy, to stink after death. This is also a reason to think as Rollo May does. But we should think from the other point of view. Every man’s death makes his relatives, friends, acquaintances feel bad, sad, or at least uncomfortable. Some of them say that they miss the person, feel lonely without him. Maybe it can be called egoism, but still person’s death does not pass through without consequences. It makes us stop for a second and think about the eternal questions of life and death. Yet another reason for such thinking could be the fear of death. When people are afraid of something they usually ignore or deny it. Some of them do not even think about it. In this situation a person who thinks so do not want to have any relationships with death and therefore deny it, give no meaning to it. And as the folk wisdom speaks – the roots of fear hide in ignorance. The meaning of death also shows burying traditions. Our ancients showed respect to a dead man by putting expensive clothes, things, animals and even humans to graves. They believed in life after death and emphasized it with great ceremonies. When Catholicism came to our culture burying traditions have changed but nevertheless it remained very important in humans’ life cycle. It proves the importance of priest’s participation in funeral. I have already mentioned World Wars. As it is the tragedy of the whole mankind, we can not judge about significance of death from this point of view. Nowadays things change very fast and it is hard to decide how people think about things. By the way Andrew Greeley said: “since the fall of socialism in Eastern Europe there has been a significant increase in religious faith in Hungary, Slovenia, East Germany, and the Soviet Union, particularly in matters of religious faith like belief in God, life after death, heaven, hell, and religious miracles.” (Society, Mar/Apr2001, Vol. 38 Issue 3, p32, 6p). Proving this I should say I was surprised one day by the Mass in the Catholic Church – there were lots of young people, they were singing, it looked as if they liked it very much to be in church, to participate in Mass. It was no doubt for me that they really believe in God who says that death is an important period in human’s existence. But there is another question about believing in God and meaningful death. It happens very often that a man who lost his friend, beloved person in early childhood when his faith in something was just beginning to develop does not believe in God, hates death because of some unfairness, offense. He can not go to a funeral, he laughs at those who suffer because of somebody’s death. He says he does not understand people who give some meaning to death. But it is just a defensive reaction. He denies death because he does not want to remember early childhood’s horrible experience. Lately I have been to a couple of funerals. People who died were not very close to me. Still their death touched me. As I looked at dead people’s relatives, friends I realized that this event is very hard to experience. It seemed that they lost the ground under their feet, they looked so lost as if they did not know how they were going to live any longer. But still in such a sad situation they believed that for a man who died will be easier to live “there”. They wanted to say goodbye to their friend, relative and I even heard one woman saying that she hopes to see him in the better world. That was the most convincing argument that she believes in the meaning of death. I would like to say that nobody should give up in believing in life after death. People should believe in death as in a one step in the better human’s life. In nowadays when social, economic conditions are very unfavorable old people who have to little time to change something must have hope in case they could live their last days cheerfully, hopefully. But it is one problem with it – people are too afraid in death. Let us cope with this problem, let us give a hopeful meaning to death and let us live more joyful!
A small number of scientists investigate ESP and other parapsychological phenomena systematically. Joseph Banks Rhine began pioneering work on ESP under carefully controlled conditions more than 50 years ago. For many observations he used a special deck of 25 cards: 5 cards of each of 5 symbols. For parapsychological studies the cards were often shuffled mechanically. Then the participant was given 25 “trials”. In studies of telepathy, the scientist chose a card and looked at it before the subject “guessed” the symbol. In research on clairvoyance, the investigator selected a card and placed it facedown on the table without looking at it. Then the participant “guessed” the symbol. For work on precognition, the subject “guessed” the symbol that would appear before the experimenter selected the card. While the number of hits among people who perform well is typically small (7 out of 25), some subjects do surprisingly well. Spontaneity and trancelike states seem to increase the magnitude of ESP effects. People who believe that ESP exists make slightly higher scores on laboratory tests than skeptics do. In the public’s mind the evidence for ESP consists primarily of personal experiences and anecdotes. Such evidence is unpersuasive in science because it suffers from many problems: 1.The replication problem is acute because most such evidence consists of one-time occurrences (for example a woman announces a premonition that she will win the lottery that day-and she does). There is no way to evaluate it because it is not repeatable. 2.The problem of inadequate controls and safeguards is decisive because such incidents occur under unexpected and ambiguously specified conditions. There is no way of ruling out such alternative interpretations as chance, faulty memories, and deliberate deception. 3.and finally the file-drawer problem is also fatal. The lottery winner who announced ahead of time that she would win is prominently featured in the news. But the thousands of others with similar premonitions who did not win are never heard from; they remain in the file-drawers. It is true that the probability of this woman’s winning the lottery was very low. But the critical criterion in evaluating this case is not the probability that she would win, but the probability that anyone of the thousands who thought they would win would do so. That probability is much higher. The same reasoning applies to precognitive dreams. We tend to forget our dreams unless and until an event happens to remind us of them. We thus have no way of evaluating how often we might have dreamed of similar unlikely events that did not occur. We fill our database with positive instances and unknowingly exclude the negative instances. Extraordinariness is a matter of degree. Telepathy seems less extraordinary to most of us than precognition cause we are already familiar with the invisible transmission of information through space. Precognition seems more extraordinary because we have no familiar phenomena in which info flaws backward in time. National polls find that about ½ of all adult Americans believe in ESP. Psychologists are a particularly skeptical group.